Driveway Landscaping San Diego

Driveway Landscaping San Diego

Home Is Where The Yard Is

Understanding Landscaper San Diego

San Diego's Climate Overview

Understanding San Diego's climate is crucial to successful landscaping in the area. Best Landscaping San Diego California. San Diego is known for its mild, Mediterranean-like climate that features warm winters and hot summers, with minimal seasonal variation. The city tends to have low humidity levels, resulting in dry conditions throughout most of the year.

Implications for Landscaping

These climatic conditions have significant implications for landscaping in San Diego. Plants suited to arid environments typically thrive here, whereas those requiring high amounts of water may struggle.

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Native plants such as manzanita, California poppy and coast live oak are excellent choices for a San Diego landscape due to their adaptation to local weather patterns and soil conditions. Understanding these aspects can help make sure that your landscaping project flourishes while also conserving water resources.

Popular Landscape Designs in San Diego

Drought-Tolerant Landscaping

In San Diego, drought-tolerant landscaping is a popular choice due to the region's arid climate. This design strategy incorporates native and drought-resistant plants that require minimal watering, making it eco-friendly and cost-efficient. Succulents, cacti, agave, and ornamental grasses are common choices for this type of landscape design.

Spanish-Style Landscaping

Drawing from San Diego’s rich Hispanic heritage, Spanish-style landscaping is another popular choice. This design features terracotta pots, brightly colored tiles and flowers, and rustic wood elements that evoke the vibe of old-world Spain. Courtyards with fountains or fire pits often form the centerpiece of these landscapes.

Coastal Landscape Design

Reflecting its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, coastal landscape designs are prevalent in San Diego. These designs incorporate beach-friendly plants like palms and bird of paradise along with sandy or pebble pathways to mimic the local coastline's natural beauty.

Tropical Resort Style

San Diego homeowners often opt for a tropical resort style landscape to create a vacation-like atmosphere in their backyard. Palm trees, orchids, ferns and water features are common elements of this lush and vibrant design theme.

Modern Minimalist Landscaping San Diego

For those who prefer clean lines and simplicity in their outdoor spaces, modern minimalist landscaping is an ideal choice. This style typically uses geometric designs with limited plant varieties for a sleek look. It also often incorporates hardscaping elements like concrete patios or metal planters.

Choosing the Right Plants for San Diego Climate

Understanding San Diego's Climate

San Diego is known for its Mediterranean climate, characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This unique weather pattern plays a significant role in determining the most suitable plants for landscaping. With average temperatures ranging from 50°F in winter to 77°F in summer, plant selection should be focused on species that can thrive in these conditions.

Selecting Drought-Tolerant Plants

Given San Diego's long, dry summers, drought-tolerant plants are a wise choice for local landscaping. These types of plants require less water and maintenance once established and often add unique textures and colors to your garden. Examples include succulents like agave or yucca, California natives such as manzanita or sagebrush, and Mediterranean species like lavender or rosemary.

Considering Microclimates

Lastly, it’s important to consider the microclimates within your property when choosing plants for landscaping. Factors like sun exposure, wind patterns and soil type can all affect plant health. Consulting with a local nursery or hiring a professional landscaper well-versed in San Diego's specific climate can help ensure that your chosen plants will not only survive but thrive in their new environment.

Tips for Maintaining Your Landscape in San Diego’s Dry Climate

Understanding San Diego's Climate:

San Diego’s dry, Mediterranean climate means that gardeners must adopt unique strategies to maintain their landscape. The city typically experiences mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers which can be challenging for plant life. Therefore, understanding the local climate and its effect on plants is crucial to landscaping in this region.

Choosing the Right Plants:

Opting for drought-tolerant plants is a smart choice in San Diego. Native plants like Sage, Manzanita, or Toyon are naturally adapted to the dry conditions and require less water. Succulents also thrive well in these conditions as they store water in their leaves and stems for extended periods.

Effective Watering Techniques:

Watering efficiently is key to maintaining your landscape in San Diego’s dry climate. Drip irrigation systems are highly recommended as they deliver water directly to the plant roots minimizing evaporation loss. Also consider watering during cooler parts of the day such as early morning or late evening when evaporation rates are lower.

The Role of Irrigation Systems in San Diego Landscaping

Irrigation Systems in San Diego Landscaping

In the arid climate of San Diego, irrigation systems play a critical role in maintaining lush, healthy landscapes. They provide essential water supply to plants and lawns during dry periods, ensuring survival and promoting growth.

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Different types of irrigation systems such as sprinkler systems, drip irrigation, and soaker hoses are commonly used in San Diego landscaping. Sprinkler systems distribute water over a large area making them ideal for lawns while drip irrigation targets specific plants or shrubs conserving water by reducing evaporation. Soaker hoses are perfect for watering garden beds or rows of plants as they deliver water directly to the roots minimizing water waste. Hence, choosing the right type of irrigation system is crucial for effective water management and sustaining verdant landscapes despite San Diego's dry conditions.

Essential Landscaping Tools and Equipment Needed in San Diego

Essential Hand Tools

Landscaping in San Diego requires a variety of essential hand tools. Shovels, spades, and rakes are crucial for preparing the ground for planting and maintaining the landscape. Other important hand tools include pruners and shears for trimming plants and hedges, as well as handheld weeders to keep unwanted growth under control.

Power Equipment

For larger jobs, power equipment can save both time and effort. Lawn mowers are necessary for maintaining grassy areas while leaf blowers help clean up fallen foliage, especially during fall season. Chainsaws may be necessary for tree pruning or removal in San Diego's diverse landscapes.

Irrigation Systems

Given San Diego's warm climate, irrigation systems play a key role in keeping landscapes lush and healthy. Drip irrigation systems or sprinkler systems can efficiently water lawns and gardens without wasting precious resources. Timer controllers are also useful to ensure consistent watering schedules.

Safety Gear

Safety should never be overlooked when landscaping in San Diego. Essential safety gear includes gloves to protect hands from sharp objects and harmful substances, safety goggles to shield eyes from flying debris when using power equipment, sturdy boots for foot protection, as well as hats or sunblock to guard against the often intense Californian sun.

Top Local Nurseries to Source Plants for Your Landscape

City Farmers Nursery

A haven for urban gardeners in San Diego, City Farmers Nursery is an expansive nursery that offers a diverse selection of native and exotic plants. With its knowledgeable staff, they can guide you in choosing the right plants for your landscaping needs. They also conduct workshops and events to help educate locals about sustainable gardening practices.

Armstrong Garden Centers

Armstrong Garden Centers is another local favorite among landscapers and homeowners alike. It's a one-stop shop that carries a wide variety of ornamental plants, trees, shrubs, and ground covers suitable for the San Diego climate. Their friendly horticulture experts are always on hand to provide advice on plant care and landscape design.

Mission Hills Nursery

Established in 1910, Mission Hills Nursery is recognized as one of San Diego’s most respected sources of quality plants. It prides itself on offering an extensive range of organic products along with drought-tolerant plants ideal for San Diego landscapes. This community-focused nursery also hosts regular seminars to inspire and educate budding gardeners.

How to Choose a Professional Landscaping Company in San Diego

Choosing a professional landscaping company in San Diego requires careful consideration and research. Begin by determining your specific landscaping needs and setting a budget. It's recommended to look for local companies with extensive experience in the San Diego area, as they will have a deep understanding of the local climate and plant species.

Checking Credentials

Always ensure that the company is fully licensed and insured to avoid legal complications down the line. You can verify their credentials through the California Landscape Contractors Association (CLCA).

Assessing Quality of Work

Review their portfolio or ask for references to assess the quality of their work. It's also worth checking online reviews to gauge customer satisfaction levels. Finally, it's important to discuss your project with them directly before hiring, ensuring they understand your vision and can deliver it effectively within your budget constraints.

Case Study: Successful Landscaping Projects in San Diego

Project Overview

A significant landscaping project was recently completed in the upscale community of La Jolla, San Diego. This endeavor involved transforming a barren backyard into a lush and inviting outdoor living space that seamlessly blended with the surrounding natural beauty.

Planning and Designing Process

To begin with, the landscape architects conducted a thorough site analysis to understand its topography, climate, and soil conditions.

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They worked closely with homeowners to create a design that met their desire for an outdoor space suitable for relaxation and entertaining, while also maintaining harmony with the local ecosystem.

Implementation of the Plan

The plan included installation of native plants which are both drought-tolerant and attractive; this choice ensured sustainability while enhancing aesthetic appeal. A stone patio area was added as a focal point for social gatherings. Water features were incorporated to create tranquility and attract local wildlife.

Resulting Transformation

Upon completion, the previously bare backyard had been transformed into a green oasis teeming with life. The new landscaping not only increased the property's value but also improved its environmental footprint by reducing water usage and providing habitat for local fauna.

The Impact on Local Community

This successful project has inspired other homeowners in San Diego to consider sustainable landscaping practices. It serves as an example of how residential landscapes can be both beautiful and beneficial to local ecosystems.

Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Landscaping Practices in San Diego

Native Plant Selection

In San Diego, sustainable landscaping often involves the use of native plants. These species are naturally adapted to local weather conditions and soil types, reducing the need for excessive watering or fertilization. This not only saves resources but also contributes to maintaining local biodiversity and creating a habitat for beneficial insects and birds.

Water Conservation

Another fundamental principle of eco-friendly landscaping in San Diego is water conservation. Given that California experiences frequent droughts, it's important to implement irrigation systems like drip irrigation or soaker hoses that minimize water wastage. Additionally, landscape designs often incorporate features like rain gardens and permeable pavers to maximize water absorption and minimize runoff.

Organic Landscaping Practices

Finally, many sustainable landscapers in San Diego promote organic gardening practices which avoid harmful chemicals. This involves using natural fertilizers, composting garden waste, and employing biological pest control methods such as introducing beneficial insects. These practices contribute to healthier soil ecosystems and reduce pollution while still maintaining beautiful landscapes.

The Importance of Soil Quality and Preparation for Landscaping

Soil Quality: The Foundation of Landscaping

In the diverse climate of San Diego, soil quality plays a crucial role in landscaping. Healthy soil provides the necessary nutrients for plant growth, aids in water retention and drainage, and fosters beneficial microorganisms. Different plants thrive in varying types of soil; thus, understanding your soil composition is essential in choosing the right plants for your landscape.

Preparation: Key to Successful Planting

Prior to planting, it's important to test your soil for nutrient content and pH level.

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Soil preparation involves enriching it with organic matter or compost to improve its fertility and texture. Loosening compacted soil also ensures proper air circulation and allows roots to spread out easily. This step is crucial as it significantly impacts the health and growth rate of your plants.

San Diego Specifics: Adapting to Local Conditions

Given San Diego's unique weather conditions, local gardeners need to adapt their practices accordingly. The region's sandy soil requires regular amendments with organic matter to increase its water holding capacity. Using native plants that are adapted to local conditions can also help create a sustainable landscape that requires less maintenance while offering an appealing aesthetic year-round.

Incorporating Hardscape into Your San Diego Landscape Design

Understanding Hardscaping

Hardscaping is a critical part of landscape design, particularly in San Diego. It refers to the non-living elements of a landscape - like stone walls, paved areas, decks and any other structures that may be part of your outdoor space. These elements provide a sense of permanence and structure, offering both functional and aesthetic benefits.

Benefits of Hardscaping

Incorporating hardscape into your San Diego landscape design can drastically improve both the usability and appeal of an outdoor space. Beyond adding visual interest and aesthetic value, it also adds functionality by creating defined areas for different activities such as dining or relaxing. With the right hardscape design, water usage can also be reduced – a significant factor considering San Diego's semi-arid climate.

Hardscaping Ideas

There are countless ways to incorporate hardscape into your landscape design. You can create an elegant pathway with natural stone or use retaining walls to control erosion in sloped areas. Alternatively, consider building a fire pit or an outdoor kitchen to enhance your entertaining capabilities. Local materials such as flagstone or decomposed granite are popular choices in San Diego due to their natural appearance and durability.

Utilizing Native Plants for a True Southern California Landscape

Benefits of Using Native Plants

Utilizing native plants in landscaping San Diego homes can provide a true Southern California landscape that is both beautiful and environmentally friendly. These local plants are adapted to the region's climate and soil, reducing the need for water, fertilizers, and pesticides. The use of native species also supports local wildlife by providing them with familiar habitats and food sources.

Examples of Native Plants for Landscaping

There are numerous options when considering native plants for your San Diego landscape. For instance, the California Poppies add vibrant pops of color while Manzanita shrubs offer year-round greenery and attract hummingbirds. Coastal Sage Scrub and Toyon are other excellent choices that require low maintenance but give high aesthetic appeal. Including these indigenous plants in your garden design will not only create an authentic Southern California landscape but also contribute to regional biodiversity.

Seasonal Care Tips for Your Lawn and Garden In San Diego

Understanding San Diego's Climate

In the city of San Diego, the Mediterranean climate provides warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. This unique climate can pose certain challenges for maintaining a healthy lawn and garden. However, with appropriate seasonal care and an understanding of the local environment, you can maintain a vibrant landscape year-round.

Spring Care

During springtime in San Diego, it is essential to prepare your yard for the upcoming dry season. Start by aerating your lawn to allow water and nutrients to penetrate the soil more deeply. You may also want to apply a slow-release fertilizer for sustained growth throughout the summer.

Summer Maintenance

As temperatures rise in summer, increase watering frequency but reduce volume to avoid runoff. Avoid mowing your grass too short as this can stress it during hot periods; instead keep it at about 2-3 inches tall which will help shade roots and preserve moisture.

Fall Preparation

Fall is an excellent time for planting in San Diego due to cooler temperatures and typically increased rainfall. Consider adding native plants that are adapted to local conditions - they'll require less maintenance and water in the long run. Make sure you also remove any fallen leaves that could smother your grass or harbor pests.

Winter Protection

In winter months, reduce watering further as most plants enter a dormancy period. This is also an ideal time to mulch flower beds which not only suppresses weeds but helps insulate plant roots against temperature fluctuations.

Cost Considerations When Planning a Landscape Project In San Diego

Materials and Labor Cost

When planning a landscaping project in San Diego, the first cost consideration should be the materials and labor. The price of items such as plants, soil, mulch, and decorative elements can vary widely. On top of that, labor costs can add up quickly if you're hiring professionals to do the work.

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It's important to get multiple quotes from different sources before making a decision.

Water Usage Costs

Another significant cost factor for landscaping in San Diego is water usage. Due to the dry climate, irrigation systems are often necessary for maintaining a lush landscape. These systems come with their own installation and maintenance costs, not to mention higher water bills due to increased usage. Choosing drought-tolerant plants can help mitigate these expenses.

Maintenance and Upkeep

Lastly, don't forget about ongoing maintenance and upkeep costs when planning your San Diego landscaping project. Regular tasks like mowing, pruning, fertilizing and pest control all require time or money investment. Considering low-maintenance plant options or opting for professional landscape maintenance services could be beneficial in managing these recurrent expenditures efficiently.

DIY vs Hiring Professionals: Pros and Cons For Landscaping In San Diego

When considering landscaping in San Diego, homeowners have two main options: taking the DIY route or hiring professionals. Each approach comes with its own set of advantages and drawbacks. On one hand, DIY projects can be very rewarding and cost-efficient. It allows you to put your personal touch on your outdoor space and enjoy the satisfaction that comes from creating something with your own hands. However, it also requires time, effort, knowledge about plants suitable for San Diego's climate, and potentially learning new skills like irrigation system installation or stone paving.

On the other hand, hiring professionals ensures that the job is done correctly and efficiently. They bring expertise in local vegetation, design principles, soil management - all critical factors in creating a sustainable and beautiful yard. However, this option may not be budget-friendly for everyone and might limit your direct involvement in shaping the landscape.

In conclusion, whether to choose DIY or hire a professional depends on individual preferences regarding budget, time investment, desired control over design aspects as well as comfort with gardening tasks.

Common Challenges Faced While Landscaping In San Diego And How To Overcome Them

Understanding the Challenges

There are unique challenges when it comes to landscaping in San Diego. The region's diverse climate and geography often pose difficulties for landscapers. For instance, the dry climate requires careful plant selection and water management. Many native plants are not compatible with the arid conditions, meaning landscapers need to be knowledgeable about drought-tolerant species. Another challenge is the hilly terrain which can lead to soil erosion and drainage problems. Moreover, San Diego's strict environmental regulations require meticulous planning before any project can commence.

Overcoming these Challenges

To overcome these challenges, it’s crucial to have a comprehensive understanding of San Diego’s specific environment and regulations. Hiring a local expert who is familiar with the area's conditions can help navigate through these issues effectively. Using drought-resistant plants like succlents or California-native flora can ensure your landscape remains vibrant throughout changing seasons without overconsuming water resources. Implementing proper grading and effective drainage systems can mitigate soil erosion due to San Diego’s hilly topography. Lastly, working closely with local authorities during the planning stage will ensure that all environmental guidelines are adhered to, preventing potential future conflicts or infractions.

19.Frequently Asked Questions about landscaping in Sandiego.

Common Queries

San Diego residents often have various questions about landscaping in the area. These inquiries range from what plants are native to the region, to how to best maintain a lawn in the city's unique climate. Understanding these queries can help homeowners create more sustainable and visually pleasing outdoor spaces.

Plant Selection

One of the most frequently asked questions pertains to choosing the right plants for San Diego landscapes. With its Mediterranean climate, certain plants like succulents, California sagebrush, and coast live oak thrive well. Utilizing these species not only adds beauty but also ensures plant survival and reduced water usage.

Lawn Maintenance

How to maintain lawns effectively is another common topic. Proper watering techniques, fertilization schedules, and mowing practices are crucial for healthy lawns in San Diego’s dry climate. It's also beneficial to know when to hire professionals for tasks such as tree trimming or pest control.

Hiring Professionals

Finally, residents frequently inquire about hiring professional landscapers. Key factors include verifying credentials, assessing previous work quality, understanding pricing structures and ensuring that they can cater to your specific needs - be it drought-resistant landscaping or designing an eye-catching flower bed.

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A landscape engineer is an individual that is enlightened in the field of landscape design. The method of landscape style includes: website analysis, site supply, website planning, land preparation, growing style, grading, storm water administration, sustainable layout, building and construction requirements, and ensuring that all plans satisfy the present building regulations and neighborhood and federal statutes. The technique of landscape design dates to some of the earliest of human societies and just as much as the technique of medicine has been inimical to the types and ubiquitous worldwide for numerous centuries. Nonetheless, this article checks out the modern-day career and instructional discipline of those exercising the design of landscape design. In the 1700s, Humphry Repton defined his occupation as "landscape garden enthusiast" on business cards he had actually prepared to represent him in job that currently would be described as that of a landscape engineer. The title, "landscape designer", was initially used by Frederick Regulation Olmsted, the developer of New York City's Central Park in Manhattan and many projects of huge range both public and personal. He was the founder of a firm of landscape designers who utilized very experienced experts to make and implement elements of tasks made under his auspices. Depending on the territory, landscape engineers that pass state needs to come to be registered, accredited, or licensed may be qualified to use the postnominal letters corresponding to their seal, commonly RLA (Registered Landscape Engineer) or more lately, PLA (Expert Landscape Designer) n. In the US, all 50 states have adopted licensure. The American Culture of Landscape Architects supports the postnominal letters PLA, for Expert Landscape Engineer, even though there is no legal or professional difference in between making use of RLA or PLA.

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Sustainable landscaping is a modern type of gardening or landscaping that takes the environmental issue of sustainability into account. According to Loehrlein in 2009 this includes design, construction and management of residential and commercial gardens and incorporates organic lawn management and organic gardening techniques.[1]

Definition

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A sustainable garden is designed to be both attractive and in balance with the local climate and environment and it should require minimal resource inputs. Thus, the design must be “functional, cost-efficient, visually pleasing, environmentally friendly and maintainable".[2] As part of sustainable development, it pays close attention to preserving limited resources, reducing waste, and preventing air, water and soil pollution. Compost, fertilization, integrated pest management, using the right plant in the right place, appropriate use of turf and xeriscaping (water-wise gardening) are all components of sustainable landscaping.

Benefits

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Sustainability can help urban commercial landscaping companies save money.[3] In California, gardens often do not outweigh the cost of inputs like water and labor. However, using appropriately selected and properly sited plants may help to ensure that maintenance costs are lower because of reduced inputs.

Issues

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Sustainability issues for landscaping include:

Non-sustainable practices include:

Solutions

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Some of the solutions are:

Proper design

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One step to garden design is to do a "sustainability audit". This is similar to a landscape site analysis that is typically performed by landscape designers at the beginning of the design process. Factors such as lot size, house size, local covenants and budgets should be considered. The steps to design include a base plan, site inventory and analysis, construction documents, implementation and maintenance.[2] Of great importance is considerations related to the growing conditions of the site. These include orientation to the sun, soil type, wind flow, slopes, shade and climate, the goal of reducing irrigation and use of toxic substances, and requires proper plant selection for the specific site.

Sustainable landscaping is not only important because it saves money, it also limits the human impact on the surrounding ecosystem. However, planting species not native to the landscape may introduce invasive plant species as well as new wildlife that was not in the ecosystem before. Altering the ecosystem is a major problem and meeting with an expert with experience with the wildlife and agriculture in the area will help avoid this.[26]

Irrigation

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Mulch may be used to reduce water loss due to evaporation, reduce weeds, minimize erosion, dust and mud problems. Mulch can also add nutrients to the soil when it decomposes. However, mulch is most often used for weed suppression. Overuse of mulch can result in harm to the selected plantings. Care must be taken in the source of the mulch, for instance, black walnut trees result in a toxic mulch product. Grasscycling turf areas (using mulching mowers that leave grass clippings on the lawn) will also decrease the amount of fertilizer needed, reduce landfill waste and reduce costs of disposal.[27]

A common recommendation is to add 2-4 inches of mulch in flower beds and under trees away from the trunk. Mulch should be applied under trees to the dripline (extension of the branches) in lieu of flowers, hostas, turf or other plants that are often planted there. This practice of planting under trees is detrimental to tree roots, especially when such plants are irrigated to an excessive level that harms the tree. One must be careful not to apply mulch to the bark of the tree. It can result in smothering, mould and insect depredation.

The practice of xeriscaping or water-wise gardening suggests that placing plants with similar water demands together will save time and low-water or drought-tolerant plants would be a smart initial consideration.

A homeowner may consider consulting an accredited irrigation technician/auditor and obtain a water audit of current systems. Drip or sub-surface irrigation may be useful. Using evapotranspiration controllers, soil sensors and refined control panels will reduce water loss. Irrigation heads may need readjustment to avoid sprinkling on sidewalks or streets. Business owners may consider developing watering schedules based on historical or actual weather data and soil probes to monitor soil moisture prior to watering.[2]

An example of sustainable irrigation (Drip Irrigation)

Building materials

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See also: Sustainable architecture

When deciding what kind of building materials to put on a site it is important to recycle as often as possible, such as for example by reusing old bricks.

It is also important to be careful about what materials you use, especially if you plan to grow food crops. Old telephone poles and railroad ties have usually been treated with a toxic substance called creosote that can leach into the soils.

Sustainably harvested lumber is available, in which ecological, economic and social factors are integrated into the management of trees used for lumber.[28]

Planting selection

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See also: Xeriscaping and Native plant

One important part of sustainable landscaping is plant selection. Most of what makes a landscape unsustainable is the amount of inputs required to grow a non-native plant on it. What this means is that a local plant, which has adapted to local climate conditions will require less work to flourish. Instead, drought-tolerant plants like succulents and cacti are better suited to survive.

Plants used as windbreaks can save up to 30% on heating costs in winter. They also help with shading a residence or commercial building in summer, create cool air through evapotranspiration and can cool hardscape areas such as driveways and sidewalks.[29]

Irrigation is an excellent end-use option in greywater recycling and rainwater harvesting systems, and a composting toilet can cover (at least) some of the nutrient requirements.[30] Not all fruit trees are suitable for greywater irrigation, as reclaimed greywater is typically of high pH and acidophile plants don't do well in alkaline environments.

Energy conservation may be achieved by placing broadleaf deciduous trees near the east, west and optionally north-facing walls of the house. Such selection provides shading in the summer while permitting large amounts of heat-carrying solar radiation to strike the house in the winter. The trees are to be placed as closely as possible to the house walls. As the efficiency of photovoltaic panels and passive solar heating is sensitive to shading, experts suggest the complete absence of trees near the south side.

Another choice would be that of a dense vegetative fence composed of evergreens (e.g. conifers) near that side from which cold continental winds blow and also that side from which the prevailing winds blow. Such a choice creates a winter windbreak that prevents low temperatures outside the house and reduces air infiltration towards the inside. Calculations show that placing the windbreak at a distance twice the height of the trees can reduce the wind velocity by 75%.[31]

The above vegetative arrangements come with two disadvantages. Firstly, they minimize air circulation in summer although in many climates heating is more important and costly than cooling, and, secondly, they may affect the efficiency of photovoltaic panels. However, it has been estimated that if both arrangements are applied properly, they can reduce the overall house energy usage by up to 22%.[31]

Sustainable lawns

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An example of a sustainable lawn

Lawns are often used as the center point of a landscape. While there are many different species of grass, only a limited amount are considered sustainable. Knowing the climate around the landscape is ideal for saving water and being sustainable. For example, in southern California having a grass lawn of tall fescue will typically need upwards of 1,365 cubic metres (360,500 US gal) of water. A lawn in the same place made up of mixed beds with various trees, shrubs, and ground cover will normally need 202 cubic metres (53,300 US gal) of water.[32] Having gravel, wood chips or bark, mulch, rubber mulch, artificial grass, patio, wood or composite deck, rock garden, or a succulent garden are all considered sustainable landscape techniques. Other species of plants other than grass that can take up a lawn are lantana, clover, creeping ivy, creeping thyme, oregano, rosemary hedges, silver pony foot, moneywort, chamomile, yarrow, creeping lily turf, ice plant, and stonecrop.[citation needed]

Maintenance

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Pests

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It is best to start with pest-free plant materials and supplies and close inspection of the plant upon purchase is recommended. Establishing diversity within the area of plant species will encourage populations of beneficial organisms (e.g. birds, insects), which feed on potential plant pests. Attracting a wide variety of organisms with a variety of host plants has shown to be effective in increasing pollinator presence in agriculture.[33] Because plant pests vary from plant to plant, assessing the problem correctly is half the battle. The owner must consider whether the plant can tolerate the damage caused by the pest. If not, then does the plant justify some sort of treatment? Physical barriers may help.[2] Landscape managers should make use of Integrated Pest Management to reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides.

Pruning

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Proper pruning will increase air circulation and may decrease the likelihood of plant diseases. However, improper pruning is detrimental to shrubs and trees.[2]

Programs

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There are several programs in place that are open to participation by various groups. For example, the Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program for golf courses,[34] the Audubon Green Neighborhoods Program,[35] and the National Wildlife Federation’s Backyard Habitat Program,[36] to name a few.

The Sustainable Sites Initiative, began in 2005, provides a points-based certification for landscapes, similar to the LEED program for buildings operated by the Green Building Council. It has guidelines and performance benchmarks.[37]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Loehrlein, Marietta (26 September 2013). Sustainable Landscaping: Principles and Practices. CRC Press. ISBN 9781466593206. Editor note: info in Wikipedia taken in November 2009 from her now defunct personal website and a class she gave on her former university webspace
  2. ^ a b c d e Colorado State University Extension. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/Pubs/Garden/07243.html. Viewed 11-15-09.
  3. ^ Buiten, Tim (19 October 2020). "Commercial Landscape Management: How to Maximize Your ROI". Tim's Complete. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  4. ^ "Sustainable Landscapes and its Benefits – Debating Science". Retrieved 2019-11-21.
  5. ^ Rowe, B., J. Andersen, J. Lloyd, T. Mrozowski and K. Getter. The green roof research at Michigan State University. http://hrt.msu.edu/greenroof/ Viewed 7/30/2007.
  6. ^ Robinette, G. O. and K. W. Sloan. 1984. Water conservation in landscape design and management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. NY. 258pp.
  7. ^ PennState Center for Green Roof Research. http://web.me.com/rdberghage/Centerforgreenroof/Home.html. Viewed 9/23/09.
  8. ^ Carver, S. 2008. Water-wise landscaping can improve conservation efforts. Landscape Mgmt. May/June Suppl Livescapes. P. 8.
  9. ^ Eberle, W. M. and J. G. Thomas. 1981. Some water-saving ways. Kansas State Ext. 4pp.
  10. ^ Krizner, K. 2008. Smart water solutions. Landscape Management May/June. p. 31-2
  11. ^ White, J.D. 2008. When the well runs dry: managing water before it becomes a crisis. GrowerTalks. Aug. pp. 42-43.
  12. ^ Campbell, C. S. and M. H. Ogden. Constructed wetlands in the sustainable landscape. 1999. Wiley & Sons. NY. 270pp.
  13. ^ Melby, P. and T. Cathcart 2002. Regenerative design techniques : practical applications in landscape design. Wiley. New York. 410 p.
  14. ^ Harker, D., G. Libby. Harker, K. Evans, S. Evans, M. 1999. Landscape Restoration Handbook, 2nd ed. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton. 865pp.
  15. ^ Fizzell, J. A. 1983. Landscape designers must put energy conservation in their plans. Amer. Nurseryman. 157:65-71.
  16. ^ Pitt, D. G. J. Kissida and W. Gould. 1980. How to design a windbreak residential landscaping. Amer. Nurseryman. Vol. 152(10): 10-11.
  17. ^ Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute. Permeable interlocking concrete pavement: a comparison guide to porous asphalt and pervious concrete. http://www.icpi.org/myproject/PICP%20Comparison%20Brochure.pdf. Viewed June 2008.
  18. ^ Kerkhoff, K. L. 2006. How to capitalize and reduce stormwater runoff in your landscapes. Grounds Maint. P. 70.
  19. ^ Thompson,W. J., K. Sorvig and Farnsworth, C. D. 2000. "Sustainable Landscape Construction". Island Pr. Washington, D.C. 348p.
  20. ^ EPA. 1998. Landscaping products containing recovered materials. USEPA Solid Waste and Emergency Response. 8pp.
  21. ^ Bramwell, J. 2006. Power with a conscience. Amer. Nurseryman. 203(3):33-37.
  22. ^ "Lawn Reform Coalition". Archived from the original on March 5, 2010.
  23. ^ "5 Water-Saving Ways to Replace Lawns During California's Drought". 2015-05-21. Archived from the original on May 24, 2015.
  24. ^ "Outgrowing the Traditional Grass Lawn".
  25. ^ "Meadows and Prairies: Wildlife-Friendly Alternatives to Lawn".
  26. ^ "Benefits Of Sustainable Landscaping". elite-horticulture. Retrieved 2019-11-19.
  27. ^ California Integrated Waste Management Board. http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Organics/landscaping/
  28. ^ http://www.bearcreeklumber.com/products/intextboth/sustainable.html. Viewed 12-07-09.
  29. ^ Farmstead Windbreaks: Planning. http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1716.pdf. Retrieved 12-12-09.
  30. ^ Ghaly, Abdelkader (July 2021). "Greywater Sources, Characteristics, Utilization and Management Guidelines: a review". Research Article.
  31. ^ a b "Green from the ground up" by D. Johnston and S. Gibson
  32. ^ Pittenger M.S, Dennis (2014). "KEEPING LANDSCAPES GREEN WITH LESS GREEN" (PDF). cite journal: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Cole, Lorna J.; Brocklehurst, Sarah; Robertson, Duncan; Harrison, William; McCracken, David I. (December 2015). "Riparian buffer strips: Their role in the conservation of insect pollinators in intensive grassland systems". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 211: 207–220. Bibcode:2015AgEE..211..207C. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2015.06.012. ISSN 0167-8809.
  34. ^ http://Audubon International. acspgolf.auduboninternational.org/. Viewed 9/23/09.
  35. ^ Green Neighborhoods http://gn.auduboninternational.org/. Viewed 9/23/09
  36. ^ Garden for Wildlife. http://www.nwf.org/gardenforwildlife/certify.cfm?campaignid=WH09KLBR. Viewed 9/23/09.
  37. ^ The Sustainable Sites Initiative. http://www.sustainablesites.org/report/SSI_Guidelines_Draft_2008.pdf. Viewed 9/23/09.
 
 
 

 

Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.
Impervious surfaces surrounding Madison, Wisconsin
Canopy cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]

As a highly interdisciplinary field in systems science, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][5][6]

The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability.[7] Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger epidemics.[8][9]

Terminology

[edit]

The German term Landschaftsökologie – thus landscape ecology – was coined by German geographer Carl Troll in 1939.[10] He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.

Explanation

[edit]

Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms.[11] Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.[12] Geomorphology is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.

History

[edit]

Evolution of theory

[edit]

One central landscape ecology theory originated from MacArthur & Wilson's The Theory of Island Biogeography. This work considered the biodiversity on islands as the result of competing forces of colonization from a mainland stock and stochastic extinction. The concepts of island biogeography were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of habitat by Levins' metapopulation model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape[13]). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing conservation biologists a new tool to assess how habitat fragmentation affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of geographic information systems (GIS)[14] and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. remotely sensed datasets).

Development as a discipline

[edit]

Landscape ecology developed in Europe from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in North America.[when?] While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as ecosystems, populations, species, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts.[15]

By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman[16] and Forman and Godron.[17][18] Forman[6] wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.

Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and models. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes.[5] An example would be determining the amount of carbon present in the soil based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps, vegetation types, and rainfall data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by Janet Franklin.

Definitions/conceptions of landscape ecology

[edit]

Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of ecology (subdiscipline of biology; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the interdisciplinary study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the integrated view of geography (in conceptions 1, 5, and 6):[19]

  1. Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units (e.g. Neef School[20][21]): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural sciences.
  2. Topological ecology at the landscape scale[22][23] 'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide human scale of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use issues.
  3. Organism-centered, multi-scale topological ecology (e.g. John A. Wiens[24][25]): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape.
  4. Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation (e.g. Urban et al.[26]): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems.
  5. Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities (e.g. Leser;[27] Naveh;[28][29] Zonneveld[30]): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the 'total human ecosystem' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres.
  6. Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes (frequently pursued in practice[31] but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard;[32] Trepl[19]): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop lifeworldly landscapes. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use.

Relationship to ecological theory

[edit]

Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general ecology theory is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of spatial patterns.[33]

Important terms

[edit]

Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.

Landscape

[edit]
Main article: Landscape

Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:[19] Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space.[34] Ernst Neef[20][21] defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michel Godron,[22] a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens[24][25] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes".[25][35] Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity.[15]

Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)

[edit]
Main articles: Scale (geography) and Spatial heterogeneity

A main concept in landscape ecology is scale. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth.[36] Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process,[33] or amount of spatial resolution.[6] Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, composition refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. Structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.[33] Pattern is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.[17]

A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial heterogeneity, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape.[6] Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well.[37]

Patch and mosaic

[edit]
See also: Patch dynamics

Patch, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings.[6] Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.[6]

Matrix is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is.[6] For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. Corridors have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides.[6] A network is an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.[6]

Boundary and edge

[edit]
Main article: Edge effect

Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy.[15] The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the boundary.[6] Edge means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance.[6] For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.[33]

Ecotones, ecoclines, and ecotopes

[edit]
Main articles: Ecotone, Ecocline, and Ecotype

A type of boundary is the ecotone, or the transitional zone between two communities.[12] Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a forest.[12] The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include fencerows, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, occurrence of a spatial community mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.[38]

An ecocline is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones.[39] An ecotope is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes.[6] Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.

Disturbance and fragmentation

[edit]
Main articles: Disturbance (ecology) and Habitat fragmentation

Disturbance is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system. Fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels.[6] Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.

An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and disconnected.[40]

Theory

[edit]

Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes.[16] Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape.[15] Landscape ecology theory includes the landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances, recovery from disturbances, and promoting total system stability.[17] This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape.

Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity.[5] Analysis of land use change has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes.[18] There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach (Bastian 2001).

An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of drainage basins, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps.[6] Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales.[33] Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an invasive species due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's habitat requirements.[33]

Application

[edit]

Research directions

[edit]

Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve environmental problems.[5] The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.[33] Multivariate analysis techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), or detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), for classifying vegetation. Gradient analysis is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).[41]

Climate change is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology.[42] Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under climate change scenarios, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat.[38] Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway.[43] The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole.

Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe.[44][45] Landscapes may become substitutes for biodiversity measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.[46]

Land change modeling

[edit]

Land change modeling is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in land use. Land change models are used in urban planning, geography, GIS, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape.[47] In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from deforestation or the expansion of urban areas.[48]

Relationship to other disciplines

[edit]

Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to land change science, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of landscape limnology. Seascape ecology is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology.[49] In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as agriculture and forestry. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems.[18]

In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry.[50] Landscape ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of fisheries biology as a distinct biological science discipline,[51] and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in hydrology.[39] It has helped shape integrated landscape management.[52] Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods.[53]

Landscape ecology has also been combined with population genetics to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time[54] and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation.[55] After the term was coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010,[56] and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions,[57] many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing biodiversity loss.[58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Wu J (January 2006). "Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science". Landscape Ecology. 21 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-7195-2. S2CID 27192835.
  2. ^ a b Wu J, Hobbs R, eds. (2007). Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^ Wu J (2008). "Landscape ecology.". In Jorgensen SE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ecology. Oxford: Elsevier.
  4. ^ Leser H, Nagel P (2001). "Landscape diversity — a holistic approach". Biodiversity. Springer. pp. 129–143. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06071-1_9. ISBN 978-3-642-08370-9.
  5. ^ a b c d Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001). Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Forman RT (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  7. ^ Wu & Hobbs 2002
  8. ^ Bloomfield LS, McIntosh TL, Lambin EF (2020-04-01). "Habitat fragmentation, livelihood behaviors, and contact between people and nonhuman primates in Africa". Landscape Ecology. 35 (4): 985–1000. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-00995-w. hdl:2078.1/243632. ISSN 1572-9761. S2CID 214731443.
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San Diego Sports Association

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Reviews for Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Paco Healy

(5)

really good experience working with Greg and Eric they were both great from start to finish. they both were great communicators and took a lot of pride in their craft. my backyard was an eye sore and now it’s a whole new inviting space. our pup loves it too. thank you and Block team. highly recommended

Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego

Nikki White

(5)

Greg was super helpful and knowledgeable. The process was super quick and easy and communication about the turf project was great. I’m sooooo happy with how my front yard looks! I find myself just looking at how amazing it looks now!

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