The Role of Landscaping in Revitalizing Las Vegas Communities
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Landscaping, believe it or not, has a significant role in revitalizing communities in Las Vegas. Best Landscaping Las Vegas Nevada. Its not just about aesthetics, folks! Its about improving the quality of life in our neighborhoods, reducing crime, and increasing property values.
First, lets consider the aesthetic aspect. We cant deny that a well-landscaped community is more pleasing to the eye than a barren one.
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It provides a sense of calm (yes, even amidst the bustling city life) and makes the environment more welcoming.
However, landscaping isnt just about the pretty flowers and well-manicured lawns. Its about creating spaces that encourage social interaction. Parks, for example, are more than just green spaces. Theyre venues where neighbors can gather, kids can play, and families can have picnics. In essence, they help foster a sense of community amongst residents.
Moreover, did you know that landscaping can help reduce crime? Thats right! Studies have found that neighborhoods with more green spaces tend to have lower crime rates. How? Well, its because well-maintained landscapes suggest that the community is cared for and monitored. This, in turn, discourages potential criminals from acting out their nefarious plans.
Then theres the economic side of things. Its no secret that properties in well-landscaped communities are often worth more than their counterparts in less attractive areas. This increase in property value benefits not just individual homeowners, but the community as a whole.
But lets not forget about the environmental impact.
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Landscaping can help mitigate the effects of urban heat island effect, a phenomenon where urban areas become significantly warmer than their rural surroundings. This is especially important in a city like Las Vegas, known for its scorching heat.
Despite all these benefits, its unfortunate that many people still view landscaping as a mere luxury rather than a necessity. They dont see the value it brings to communities and dismiss it as an unnecessary expense. But this couldnt be further from the truth!
In conclusion, landscaping plays a vital role in revitalizing Las Vegas communities. Its not just about beautifying spaces. Its about creating an environment where people can live, work, and play safely and comfortably. So the next time you see a landscaper at work, give them a nod of appreciation. Theyre not just planting trees, theyre helping build stronger and safer communities.
And remember, every little bit helps! Even if you cant afford a professional landscaper, you can still contribute by keeping your own yard neat and tidy.
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After all, a well-kept yard is a sign of a caring homeowner, and a caring homeowner is a valuable asset to any community. So lets all do our part and help make Las Vegas a better place to live, one landscape at a time!
Sustainable landscape design is a modern sort of horticulture or landscape design that takes the ecological problem of sustainability right into account. According to Loehrlein in 2009 this consists of layout, building and administration of property and industrial gardens and includes natural yard monitoring and organic horticulture methods.
Native Americans were the first to inhabit the area. Paiute Indians settled in the area in around 700 AD.[10]
During the 1860s, Conrad Kiel established a ranch at the modern-day intersection of Carey Street and Losee Road in what would be North Las Vegas.[11] In 1917, libertarian Thomas L. Williams of Eureka, Utah visited the Las Vegas Valley, back when Las Vegas, Las Vegas Indian Colony, and Arden were the only entities in the valley.[11] He did not approve of Las Vegas, perhaps because of its rowdiness (he was a Christian, or at least went to church), or because Las Vegas' attempts at municipal control over its citizens. However, he was pleased by the abundance of the valley's artesian water and potential for agriculture.[11] Two years later in 1919, he moved together with his family (his wife and three sons) to a 160-acre piece of land a mile from Las Vegas. That year, he founded his town, developing the town by building for himself and his family a house, sinking a well, grading roads, extending power lines, and forming a system of irrigation ditches.[11] Williams believed that churches and church people should govern the new town, and so encouraged churches to buy property in the town.[11] In 1919, the federally enforced Volstead Act was passed, which prohibited the sale, possession, and consumption of alcohol. Since there was no local law against alcohol, and because of a system of tunnels that would connect the town's underground speakeasies, the town attracted bootleggers from Las Vegas, although Williams was initially unaware of this. This gave his town the nickname of "Old Town".[11] When he did discover it, he stuck with agriculture for his economic purposes.[11]
In 1924, Williams built his second house that was the first business of the town. It was named the Oasis Auto Court, and it contained a grocery store, a campground, a post office, a community center, and a telephone. At the time, it was the town's only telephone.[11] Between 1928 and 1935, a large influx of workers from the Hoover Dam settled in Williams' town, as Las Vegas was intolerant towards them.[11] In 1932, the town board was created. That same year, the town's first grammar school, Washington School, opened.[11] A proper name had not yet been established for the town, and Williams did not want it named after himself, which lead to the town board voting for either "North Las Vegas" or "Vegas Verdes" (which means "Green Meadows" in Spanish). "Vegas Verdes" won, and that became the name for the town for a few months. George Hansen, a town board member who voted for the name "North Las Vegas", noticed that at one town board meeting, two members who voted the name "Vegas Verdes" were absent. The vote for a name came once again, and "North Las Vegas" won.[12][11] In 1939, Williams died of stroke, and that left North Las Vegas to the ruling of the town board. An elementary school, and a road, were eventually named after him.[13][14] During World War II, the Las Vegas Aerial Gunnery School opened in North Las Vegas. It would eventually become Nellis Air Force Base.[11] North Las Vegas was the subject of many annexation attempts from Las Vegas. On May 1, 1946, North Las Vegas was incorporated as a city.[11] In 1957, North Las Vegas planned to annex an area to its southeast, and in response, the Clark County Commission created the town of Sunrise Manor to prevent further annexation attempts.[15]
On May 13, 1964, First Lieutenant Raynor Lee Hebert, a student pilot from Port Arthur, Texas, took off from Nellis Air Force Base at approximately 2:00 PM on an F-105 fighter jet. He radioed his flight leader saying that he could not retract his nose gear, and thus could not gain altitude. He was at a height high enough to bail out, but too low that if he did, he would've hit Lincoln Elementary School, which was in session with 800 students. He kept the plane nose up long enough to pass the school, and eventually hit nine residential houses on Lenwood Avenue. The crash killed Hebert and four civilians. Hebert Memorial Park was created by the City of North Las Vegas with a plaque at the crash site to commemorate Hebert.[11][16]
In the early 1960s, North Las Vegas had a major growth boom. The 1970s in North Las Vegas saw a growth in poor neighborhoods, population density, and crime. In 1988, former mayor James Seastrand said in one interview,
There are those of us who live here and care for this city and would not move out of it — even though we could afford to.
In the 1990s, North Las Vegas annexed about 60 square miles (160 km2) of empty desert surrounding the city, reportedly for more "upscale" housing.[11][18]
On January 29, 2022, nine people were killed and a tenth person was critically injured following a six-vehicle crash at the intersection of Cheyenne Avenue and Commerce Street in North Las Vegas. The crash occurred after a speeding Dodge Challenger ran a red light and struck the other five vehicles. The road accident—the deadliest in the area in recent history—was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board.[19]
Located within the Mojave Desert in the southwestern United States, North Las Vegas sits northeast of Las Vegas. According to the United States Census Bureau, North Las Vegas has a total area of 101.4 square miles (262.6 km2), of which 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2), or 0.04%, is water.[20] In the Las Vegas Valley, there are several prominent mountain ranges nearby.
Due to its location within the Mojave Desert, North Las Vegas has a desert climate. Temperatures are generally mild in the winter and hot in the summer. Like most of the hot deserts of the United States, snowfall only occurs once every few years on average. In winter, temperatures are mild during the day but typically fall below freezing overnight. In the summer, monsoons can reach the area, bringing heavy rain and thunderstorms.
This section needs expansion with: examples with reliable citations. You can help by adding to it. (September 2021)
North Las Vegas, Nevada – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
As of the 2000 census, there were 115,488 people, 34,018 households, and 27,112 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,471.0 inhabitants per square mile (568.0/km2). There were 36,600 housing units at an average density of 466.2 per square mile (180.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 55.93% White, 19.02% African American, 0.82% Native American, 3.24% Asian, 0.53% Pacific Islander, 15.78% from other races, and 4.68% from two or more races. 37.61% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 34,018 households, out of which 47.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.3% were married couples living together, 15.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.3% were non-families. 13.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.36 and the average family size was 3.67.
In the city the population was spread out, with 33.9% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 34.3% from 25 to 44, 16.4% from 45 to 64, and 5.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $46,057, and the median income for a family was $46,540. Males had a median income of $32,205 versus $25,836 for females. About 11.8% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.6% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over. The United States Census Bureau listed North Las Vegas, as well as the Las Vegas metropolitan area, as one of the fastest-growing regions in the United States.
Bigelow Aerospace is headquartered in North Las Vegas. Traditionally, manufacturing, industrial and warehouse distribution companies have dominated the local market. High-tech businesses, including solar and green technology, and custom manufacturing facilities are moving to North Las Vegas.
On May 12, 2019, Amazon opened a 850,000-square-foot fulfillment center in North Las Vegas which currently employs more than 1,500 people.[28] In October 2019 Sephora opened a 715,000-square-foot distribution center in North Las Vegas.[29]
As construction began on the nearby Brightline West highspeed railroad project, PCM Railone AG announced in June 2024 that they would build a production facility for concrete ties and open a North American headquarters in North Las Vegas.[30]
The city of North Las Vegas provides recreational amenities, police and fire protection, and water and wastewater services. The city, which was incorporated in 1946, encompasses 262.6 square kilometres (101.4 sq mi). The city operates under a council-manager form of government, with a mayor and four council members. The mayor is elected at large; and council members must live within, and are elected by their wards. The city has two municipal judges who are elected at large.
The city manager and city attorney are appointed by and report to the city council. The city manager's administration consists of an Economic Development Division, Strategic Planning Division, community Outreach Division, Communications and Marketing Division and the following departments: Administrative Services, City Clerk, Community Services and Development, Finance, Fire, Human Resources, Parks and Recreation, Police, Public Works, the North Las Vegas Library District, and Utilities.
The City of North Las Vegas operates an extensive system of open spaces, parks and leisure services. The city maintains 34 parks totaling more than 475 acres (192 ha) of developed park land. Six of the city's parks feature water amenities, including pools, ponds and spray pads. The city also runs two recreation centers.
In June 2011 the city opened a third recreation center—SkyView Multi-Generational Recreation Center—focused on mufti-generational fitness and recreation. It is operated by the YMCA under contract to provide quality amenities and programs for residents of all ages.[33]
North Las Vegas park officials recently[when?] completed 10 miles (16 km) of regional trails along the Lower Las Vegas Wash and along the Upper Las Vegas Wash. These paved trails connect with Southern Nevada's Neon to Nature regional trail system, which is used for hiking, biking and leisurely strolls.
The North Las Vegas Library District operates three full-service libraries—North Las Vegas Library, Aliante Library and Alexander Library. Each offers public access computers, adult and children's programming and meeting rooms in addition to books, downloadable media, DVDs, magazines and newspapers. Each also provides wireless connectivity to the Web for patrons who wish to use their electronic devices.
The North Las Vegas Library, was the city's first library to open in 1966. Aliante Library opened to the public in May 2006 adjacent to the Nature Discovery Park, one of the most popular recreation amenities in North Las Vegas. Alexander Library, the city's newest state-of-the-art facility, opened in March 2009 and is adjacent to a two-acre park that includes tot lots, shade structures, paved and lighted walking paths and demonstration gardens.[34][citation needed]
The North Las Vegas Police Department was established in 1946 (when the city incorporated) to serve North Las Vegas, which at that time consisted of four square miles and a population of around 3,000. NLVPD grew to keep pace with the rapid growth of the city of North Las Vegas and Clark County. As of 2016, NLVPD provided law enforcement services to an area of 100.48 square miles (260.2 km2) and a population of approximately 233,808 citizens. As of July 2016, NLVPD had 309 commissioned personnel (Police and Detention Officers) and 106 civilian support personnel.[35]
North Las Vegas is home to the Cheyenne Campus of the College of Southern Nevada.[37] The institution covers an area of roughly 80 acres (32 ha) and provides for a broad variety of different courses.[38] As of 2013, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas was planning to open a branch in North Las Vegas near the I-215 Beltway, though this plan has yet to be implemented as of 2022.[38]
Primary and secondary school students in North Las Vegas are served by the Clark County School District (CCSD), the fifth-largest in the United States with over 300,000 students enrolled in any of its 357 schools.[39][40] CCSD has a workforce of over 35,000 people, and is considered a major employer in the county.[38][39]
The following high schools are in North Las Vegas:
^"North Las Vegas: About". Nevada State Library, Archives and Public Records. Archived from the original on December 23, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
^ abc"2013 Community Report"(PDF). North Las Vegas City Council. January 2013. p. 17. Archived(PDF) from the original on August 21, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
Paradise is an unincorporated town[2] and census-designated place (CDP) in Clark County, Nevada, United States, adjacent to the city of Las Vegas. It was formed on December 8, 1950. Its population was 191,238 at the 2020 census, making it the fifth-most-populous CDP in the United States; if it were an incorporated city, it would be the fifth-largest in Nevada.[3] As an unincorporated town, it is governed by the Clark County Commission with input from the Paradise Town Advisory Board.
The southern part of the Las Vegas Valley was referred to as Paradise Valley as early as 1910, owing to a high water table that made the land particularly fertile for farming.[5][6] County commissioners established a Paradise school district in 1914.[7]
Neighborhoods on the east side of Paradise
In 1950, mayor Ernie Cragin of Las Vegas sought to annex the Las Vegas Strip, which was unincorporated territory, in order to expand the city's tax base to fund his ambitious building agenda and pay down the city's rising debt.[8] A group of casino executives, led by Gus Greenbaum of the Flamingo, lobbied the county commissioners for town status, which would prevent the city from annexing the land without the commission's approval.[8] The commission voted to create the unincorporated town of Paradise on December 8, 1950.[9][10] The town encompassed a strip one mile (1.6 km) wide and four miles (6.4 km) long, from the southern city limits of Las Vegas to just south of the Flamingo.[10] The town board initially consisted of five casino managers, chaired by Greenbaum.[10][11]
A month after its establishment, the town was expanded to include the residential areas of Paradise Valley, giving it a total area of 54 square miles (140 km2).[11] Months later, however, it was reported that county officials had determined that the town had not been properly established because the petition for the town's formation had an insufficient number of signatures and because it had violated a state law forbidding formation of a town spanning multiple school districts.[12] On August 20, 1951, county commissioners accepted petitions to create two new towns covering the area of the putative town.[13] Town "A" of Paradise included the areas that lay within a Las Vegas school district, extending from the city limits to a point one mile south, while Town "B" included the areas within the Paradise school district.[12]
In 1953, Town A was renamed as Winchester, and Town B became known simply as Paradise.[14]
In 1975, Nevada enacted a law that would have incorporated Paradise (along with Sunrise Manor and Winchester) into the City of Las Vegas.[15] Before it could take effect, however, the bill was struck down as unconstitutional by the Nevada Supreme Court.[16][17]
The deadliest fire that occurred in the entire Las Vegas Valley was the MGM Grand fire on November 21, 1980. In the early morning hours, a deli counter had an electrical short that resulted in a fire in the walls of the hotel. The MGM Grand was built to the fire code of 1973, which did not require sprinkler systems, so sprinklers were only installed in the kitchens and theater. The fire traveled in the walls of the hotel damaging the fire alarm system.[18] As the fire burned, toxic smoke entered the ventilation system traveling to the rooms of the hotel. Guests broke windows to get fresh air, while waiting for rescue from firemen. Eighty-five people died in the fire, with two more dying later, bringing the death toll to 87 people. In addition to those who died, nearly 700 people were injured in the fire.[19] This fire contributed to a widespread change in the requirements for fire safety in hotels.[19]
On October 1, 2017, the deadliest mass shooting in the United States by a lone gunman occurred in Paradise when 64-year-old Stephen Paddock opened fire on the crowd attending the Route 91 Harvest music festival on the Strip from his 32nd-floor suite in the Mandalay Bay hotel.[20] He fired more than 1,000 rounds, killing 60 people and wounding at least 413 others.[21] The ensuing panic brought the total number of injured to approximately 867. About an hour later, he was found dead in his room from a self-inflicted gunshot wound.[22]
On January 1, 2025, at approximately 8:39 a.m. (PST), an IED exploded in a Tesla Cybertruck parked outside the main entrance of the Trump International Hotel Las Vegas in Paradise. The driver and alleged perpetrator was Matthew Alan Livelsberger, an American-born, active-duty United States Army Special Forces soldier from Colorado Springs, Colorado.[23] He was on leave from overseas duty and died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head immediately before the explosion.[23] Seven bystanders were injured by the blast.[23] Authorities found that the vehicle contained firework mortars and gas canisters, which had fueled the explosion and fire. Per a note from Livelsberger's "the explosion was a stunt meant to be a 'wake up call' for the nation’s troubles".[24]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the census-designated place (CDP) of Paradise (which may not coincide exactly with the town boundaries) has a total area of 46.7 square miles (121 km2), all of it land.
The official town boundaries are bordered by Desert Inn Road to the north, Nellis Boulevard to the east, Sunset Road to the south and Decatur Boulevard to the west. There is a southern finger between Bermuda Road and Eastern Avenue south to Silverado Ranch Boulevard. South of Russell Road, the eastern border stairsteps on a rough 45-degree angle toward the corner of Eastern and Robindale Road, and there is an additional finger surrounding Interstate 215 east to St. Rose Parkway.[25]
As of the census[28] of 2000, there were 186,070 people, 77,209 households, and 43,314 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,947.3 inhabitants per square mile (1,524.1/km2). There were 85,398 housing units at an average density of 1,811.6 per square mile (699.5/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 72.51% White, 6.59% African American, 0.77% Native American, 6.52% Asian, 0.59% Pacific Islander, 8.37% from other races, and 4.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 23.47% of the population.
In 2020 there were 80,732 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.6% were married couples living together, 29.4% had a female householder with no partner present, and 30.8% had a male householder with no partner present. 36.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.[27]
In the CDP, 21.4% was under the age of 19, 7% from 20 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 26.6% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 20 and over, there were 105.4 males.[27]
The median income for a household in the CDP was $48,032. The median income for a family was $61,743 versus $72,654 for married couple families. The per capita income for the CDP was $68,858. 16.8% of the population and 11.8% of families were below the poverty line. 15.5% of males were living below the poverty line versus 18.2% of females. 19.3% of families with children under the age of 18 and 5.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[27]
Also, since 2004, the Las Vegas Summer League, organized by the National Basketball Association (NBA), is played in the Thomas & Mack Center and in the Cox Pavilion.[37] Many NCAA College Basketball Tournament conferences are also hosted at the Thomas & Mack Center in March every year.[38]
Since 1985, almost every December the National Finals Rodeo has been held at the Thomas & Mack Center. The one exception was in 2020, when the event was held in Arlington, Texas, at Globe Life Field due to public health concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic.[39] The contract extension signed in June 2024 means that the finals will continue to be held at the Thomas & Mack Center until at least 2035.[40]
Paradise has also been the site of many prominent combat sports events, such as boxing and MMA, with Las Vegas being considered by many as the "fight capital of the world."[42]
Science of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems
Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.Impervious surfaces surrounding Madison, WisconsinCanopy cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin
Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]
As a highly interdisciplinary field in systems science, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][5][6]
The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability.[7] Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger epidemics.[8][9]
The German term Landschaftsökologie – thus landscape ecology – was coined by German geographerCarl Troll in 1939.[10] He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.
Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms.[11] Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.[12]Geomorphology is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.
One central landscape ecology theory originated from MacArthur & Wilson'sThe Theory of Island Biogeography. This work considered the biodiversity on islands as the result of competing forces of colonization from a mainland stock and stochasticextinction. The concepts of island biogeography were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of habitat by Levins' metapopulation model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape[13]). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing conservation biologists a new tool to assess how habitat fragmentation affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of geographic information systems (GIS)[14] and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. remotely sensed datasets).
Landscape ecology developed in Europe from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in North America.[when?] While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as ecosystems, populations, species, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts.[15]
By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman[16] and Forman and Godron.[17][18] Forman[6] wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.
Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and models. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes.[5] An example would be determining the amount of carbon present in the soil based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps, vegetation types, and rainfall data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by Janet Franklin.
Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of ecology (subdiscipline of biology; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the interdisciplinary study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the integrated view of geography (in conceptions 1, 5, and 6):[19]
Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units (e.g. Neef School[20][21]): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural sciences.
Topological ecology at the landscape scale[22][23] 'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide human scale of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use issues.
Organism-centered, multi-scale topological ecology (e.g. John A. Wiens[24][25]): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape.
Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation (e.g. Urban et al.[26]): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems.
Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities (e.g. Leser;[27] Naveh;[28][29] Zonneveld[30]): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the 'total human ecosystem' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres.
Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes (frequently pursued in practice[31] but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard;[32] Trepl[19]): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop lifeworldlylandscapes. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use.
Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general ecology theory is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of spatial patterns.[33]
Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.
Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:[19]Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space.[34]Ernst Neef[20][21] defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michel Godron,[22] a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens[24][25] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes".[25][35] Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity.[15]
Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)
A main concept in landscape ecology is scale. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth.[36] Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process,[33] or amount of spatial resolution.[6] Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, composition refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. Structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.[33]Pattern is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.[17]
A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial heterogeneity, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape.[6] Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well.[37]
Patch, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings.[6] Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.[6]
Matrix is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is.[6] For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. Corridors have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides.[6] A network is an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.[6]
Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy.[15] The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the boundary.[6]Edge means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance.[6] For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.[33]
A type of boundary is the ecotone, or the transitional zone between two communities.[12] Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a forest.[12] The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include fencerows, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, occurrence of a spatial community mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.[38]
An ecocline is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones.[39] An ecotope is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes.[6] Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.
Disturbance is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system. Fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels.[6] Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.
An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and disconnected.[40]
Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes.[16] Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape.[15] Landscape ecology theory includes the landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances, recovery from disturbances, and promoting total system stability.[17] This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape.
Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity.[5] Analysis of land use change has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes.[18] There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach (Bastian 2001).
An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of drainage basins, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps.[6] Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales.[33] Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an invasive species due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's habitat requirements.[33]
Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve environmental problems.[5] The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.[33]Multivariate analysis techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), or detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), for classifying vegetation. Gradient analysis is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).[41]
Climate change is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology.[42] Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under climate change scenarios, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat.[38] Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway.[43] The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole.
Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe.[44][45] Landscapes may become substitutes for biodiversity measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.[46]
Land change modeling is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in land use. Land change models are used in urban planning, geography, GIS, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape.[47] In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from deforestation or the expansion of urban areas.[48]
Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to land change science, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of landscape limnology. Seascape ecology is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology.[49] In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as agriculture and forestry. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems.[18]
In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry.[50] Landscape ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of fisheries biology as a distinct biological science discipline,[51] and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in hydrology.[39] It has helped shape integrated landscape management.[52] Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods.[53]
Landscape ecology has also been combined with population genetics to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time[54] and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation.[55] After the term was coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010,[56] and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions,[57] many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing biodiversity loss.[58]
^Troll C (1939). "Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung" [Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth]. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde (in German). Berlin: 241–298.
^Turner MG (1989). "Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 20: 171–197. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001131.
^ abcAllaby M (1998). Oxford Dictionary of Ecology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
^Banaszak J, ed. (2000). Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz, Poland: Bydgoszcz University Press. p. 313.
^ abcKirchhoff T, Trepl L, Vicenzotti V (February 2013). "What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions". Landscape Research. 38 (1): 33–51. doi:10.1080/01426397.2011.640751. S2CID145421450. All the following quotations and descriptions come from this source.
^ abNeef E (1967). Die theoretischen Grundlagen der Landschaftslehre [The theoretical basics of landscape science] (in German). Gotha: Haack.
^ abHaase G (1990). "Approaches to, and methods of landscape diagnosis as a basis of landscape planning and landscape management". Ekológia. 9 (1): 31–44.
^ abForman RT, Godron M (November 1981). "Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology". BioScience. 31 (10): 733–40. doi:10.2307/1308780. JSTOR1308780.
^Forman RT, Godron M (1986). Landscape ecology. NY: Wiley.
^ abWiens JA, Milne BT (December 1989). "Scaling of 'landscapes' in landscape ecology, or, landscape ecology from a beetle's perspective". Landscape Ecology. 3 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1007/BF00131172. S2CID15683804.
^ abcWiens JA (1999). "The science and practice of landscape ecology.". In Klopatek JM, Gardner RH (eds.). Landscape ecological analyses: Issues and applications. NY: Springer. pp. 371–383.
^Leser H (1991). Landschaftsökologie. Ansatz, Modelle, Methodik, Anwendung. Stuttgart: Ulmer.
^Naveh Z, Lieberman AS (1984). Landscape ecology. Theory and application. NY: Springer.
^Naveh N (2000). "What is holistic landscape ecology? A conceptual introduction". Landscape and Urban Planning. 50 (1–3): 7–26. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00077-3.
^Zonneveld IS (1995). Land ecology: an introduction to landscape ecology as a base for land evaluation, land management and conservation. Amsterdam: SPB.
^However, not always under the designation 'landscape ecology', but as part of landscape stewardship, landscape architecture and, first and foremost, environmental or urban and landscape planning.
^Hard G (1973). Die Geographie. Eine wissenschaftstheoretische Einführung. Berlin: deGruyter. pp. 92–95.
^ abcdefgTurner MG, Gardner RH, eds. (1991). Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
^Troll C (2007). "The geographic landscape and its investigation.". In Wiens JA, Moss MR, Turner MG, Mladenoff DJ (eds.). Foundation papers in landscape ecology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 71–101. First published as: Troll C (1950). "Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung". Studium Generale. Vol. 3. pp. 163–181. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-38240-0_20. ISBN978-3-662-37475-7. cite book: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Wiens JA (2005). "Toward a unified landscape ecology". In Wiens JA, Moss MR (eds.). Issues and perspectives in landscape ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–373.
^Malczewski J (1999). GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
^Lyon J, Sagers CL (September 1998). "Structure of herbaceous plant assemblages in a forested riparian landscape". Plant Ecology. 138 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1023/A:1009705912710. S2CID28628830.
^Ochoa-Hueso R, Delgado-Baquerizo M, King PT, Benham M, Arca V, Power SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 129: 144–152. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. hdl:10261/336676. S2CID92606851.
^Shaker RR (September 2015). "The well-being of nations: an empirical assessment of sustainable urbanization for Europe". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 22 (5): 375–87. doi:10.1080/13504509.2015.1055524. S2CID154904536.
^Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (April 2003). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (4): 189–197. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9. S2CID2984426.
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