Pruning is a vital gardening technique that enhances plant health, shapes plant growth, and improves flowering and fruiting. However, the timing of pruning can significantly influence its effectiveness. Understanding when to prune different types of plants according to seasonal guidelines is crucial for maintaining their vigor and beauty.
Spring Pruning: Spring is often considered an ideal time for pruning many types of plants because it coincides with the onset of growth spurts. This season is perfect for pruning early bloomers just after their flowers fade. For example, flowering trees and shrubs like forsythia, azalea, and rhododendron benefit from being pruned shortly after they bloom in spring to avoid cutting off next year's buds. Spring is also an excellent time to prune roses, as it encourages strong new growth and abundant blooms.
Summer Pruning: Pruning during the summer has specific advantages, particularly for certain fruit trees and ornamental plants. Summer pruning can be used to direct energy away from excessive vegetative growth toward fruit production or to enhance the structural integrity of the tree. It's also a suitable time for deadheading many flowering perennials to encourage a second bloom cycle in late summer or early fall.
Autumn Pruning: Fall pruning is generally discouraged because it can stimulate new growth at a time when plants are preparing for dormancy. However, some perennials like peonies and hostas can be cut back after they die down in the fall to keep the garden tidy and reduce disease risks.
Winter Pruning: Winter offers a prime opportunity for pruning deciduous trees and shrubs while they are dormant. Without leaves, it's easier to see the structure of these plants, making selective cutting simpler. This kind of pruning promotes vigorous spring growth. Evergreens can also be lightly pruned in early winter if necessary but beware not to expose them too much before harsh weather sets in.
Each plant species may have specific needs that slightly alter these general guidelines-always consider individual requirements based on local climate conditions and plant characteristics. For instance, some hydrangeas must be treated differently depending on whether they flower on old or new wood.
In conclusion, understanding seasonal pruning norms allows gardeners to make informed decisions that support healthy plant development throughout the year. By adhering to these general guidelines while tailoring practices to specific plant needs, one ensures a vibrant, flourishing garden that responds well year-round.
Effective pruning is an essential practice in garden management, ensuring plants maintain optimal health, encourage new growth, and enhance aesthetic appeal. Whether you are tending to a small home garden or managing a large landscape, having the right tools and equipment is crucial for effective pruning. This essay outlines some of the essential tools and equipment necessary for various pruning techniques.
Firstly, hand pruners, also known as secateurs, are indispensable in any gardener's toolkit. They are ideal for cutting branches and stems up to ¾ inches thick. There are two main types of hand pruners: bypass pruners and anvil pruners. Bypass pruners have two curved blades that slide past each other like scissors, offering precise cuts without crushing plant tissues. Anvil pruners feature a single straight blade that closes onto a flat edge or 'anvil,' suitable for dead wood and harder materials.
For larger branches, typically between ½ inch to about 2 inches thick, loppers are the tool of choice. Loppers come with long handles providing leverage to make clean cuts without exerting excessive effort. Similar to hand pruners, they come in bypass and anvil styles. The longer handles not only offer improved reach into dense foliage but also help in reducing strain on the arms and back.
When dealing with even thicker branches or hard-to-reach areas, a pruning saw is ideal. Pruning saws can handle limbs several inches thick and come in various styles including bow saws, folding saws, and pole saws for higher branches. Their teeth design allows for aggressive cutting action which makes work faster and more efficient.
For very high branches that would otherwise require a ladder, pole pruners (or pole saws) provide a safer option by allowing pruning from the ground. These tools consist of a saw or lopper head mounted on an extendable pole, enabling reach into tree canopies up to 12 feet high or more depending on the model.
Another vital piece of equipment is hedge shears for shaping hedges and bushes with multiple small branches. Hedge shears are designed much like large scissors or loppers with long flat blades that cut across wide swaths of foliage at once resulting in uniformity while shaping hedges.
In addition to these primary tools used directly for cutting or trimming plants part of your routine should include care for these tools as well using items like sharpening stones files oil rags maintaining cleanliness sharpness ensure they function optimally over time help prevent spread plant diseases through dirty contaminated blades
Safety gear should also be regarded as essential equipment while doing any form of pruning Safety glasses gloves especially important since both protect against flying debris accidental cuts respectively Considering additional protective clothing such as long-sleeve shirts pants recommended minimize scratching stinging from plants insects
Finally having sturdy stable ladder when using standard hand tools reach higher points critical safety ensuring stability minimizing risk falls injuries associated working heights
In conclusion having appropriate selection maintained well-equipped set gardening tools fundamental achieving effective results when it comes time prune your plants From selection right type tool based size job personal safety considerations thorough understanding usage maintenance these instruments will ensure that your gardening efforts fruitful aesthetically pleasing safe every step way
Pruning is an essential practice in gardening and arboriculture that involves the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. Key pruning techniques include thinning, topping, and raising, each serving specific purposes and applied according to the plant's health, type, and desired growth pattern. Understanding these methods can greatly enhance a gardener's ability to maintain plant health, control growth, and influence aesthetic appearance.
Thinning is a pruning technique used primarily to enhance the structure and health of a tree or shrub. This method involves removing entire branches or limbs at their point of origin from either the parent stem or trunk. By doing so, thinning improves light penetration and air circulation throughout the canopy of the tree. This increased exposure to sunlight and airflow helps reduce the risk of disease. Thinning is particularly beneficial for plants that have become overly dense with foliage as it helps maintain their natural shape while encouraging healthy growth. Unlike other methods, thinning does not stimulate excessive new growth but maintains the existing form.
Topping, on the other hand, is generally considered a harmful pruning practice because it involves cutting large branches or trunks from the top of the tree down to stubs. Topping is often used to reduce tree size quickly; however, it can lead to weakened trees prone to pest infestation and disease. The cuts from topping create large wounds that are difficult for trees to heal effectively. Moreover, the rapid sprouting that follows topping produces numerous weakly attached shoots which are more susceptible to breaking off easily under stress such as high winds or heavy snowfalls. Therefore, most professional arborists discourage topping except where absolutely necessary for safety reasons or utility compliance.
Raising refers to pruning techniques aimed at increasing clearance beneath a tree's canopy. This might be done for various practical reasons such as providing clearance for pedestrians, vehicles, or lines of sight on roads or pathways. Raising involves removing lower branches from a tree thereby elevating its base canopy. It's important when performing this technique not to remove too many lower limbs at once as this can destabilize the tree by disproportionately concentrating foliage at the top.
Each pruning technique must be applied thoughtfully with consideration given to both immediate needs like safety or aesthetics as well as long-term health and stability of plants. Incorrect application can severely damage plants leading them into decline phases which might require years of recovery or result in permanent harm.
In conclusion, pruning plays a critical role in landscape management but requires knowledge about different techniques like thinning, topping (to be avoided if possible), and raising – all tailored towards maintaining plant health while fulfilling specific landscape functions. Whether you're a hobbyist gardener learning how best to care for your backyard orchard or a professional managing public green spaces; understanding these basic principles will ensure your efforts contribute positively towards plant longevity and vibrancy.
Specialized pruning techniques for fruit trees are essential for enhancing yield, improving fruit quality, and maintaining the overall health of the tree. Pruning is not just about cutting; it's an art that requires understanding the unique growth patterns and needs of each tree species. Effective pruning strategies can significantly impact a tree's productivity and longevity.
One fundamental concept in specialized pruning is timing. The timing of pruning can dramatically affect the fruit production. For instance, winter pruning is common and typically stimulates new growth in spring, leading to more fruiting wood. However, summer pruning is crucial too; it helps in removing unwanted growth, thus directing energy into fruit development rather than excessive vegetative growth.
Another technique involves understanding the type of cuts to make. Thinning cuts remove entire branches or limbs to open up the canopy, improve light penetration and air circulation within the tree’s structure. This not only enhances fruit size and quality but also reduces disease incidence by allowing quicker drying after rain or dew. Heading cuts, on the other hand, involve cutting back branches to buds facing the outside of the tree which encourages branching and can be used to shape the tree and control its size.
Selective pruning is particularly beneficial for older trees where productivity has begun to decline. By removing older wood or non-productive branches, one can invigorate the tree, encouraging it to develop new productive wood capable of bearing high-quality fruits.
Espalier training is another sophisticated technique where trees are pruned and trained along a flat plane against structures such as walls or trellises. This method not only saves space but also makes pest monitoring and harvesting easier while maximizing sun exposure - a critical factor in many fruiting processes.
Moreover, different types of fruit trees require specific approaches. For example, apple trees benefit from a central leader system that allows a clear main branch with secondary branches spiraling outwards ensuring even sunlight distribution necessary for uniform fruit development. In contrast, stone fruits like cherries thrive on an open vase system where the center of the tree is kept clear of branches to allow light into the heart of the canopy.
To further enhance yields through specialized pruning techniques, growers must also consider factors like rootstock selection which influences how vigorously a tree grows; this ties directly into how much pruning will be required annually.
In conclusion, specialized pruning techniques tailored specifically towards different types of fruit trees play a pivotal role in optimizing yield both in terms of quantity and quality. These practices require patience and precision but ultimately lead to healthier trees that produce better fruits season after season - a rewarding endeavor for any grower committed to their orchard's success.
Pruning Techniques for Ornamental Plants to Maintain Aesthetic Appeal
Maintaining the aesthetic appeal of ornamental plants is not just about keeping them alive; it involves meticulous care and attention through various gardening techniques, one of which is pruning. Pruning is an essential practice that helps maintain the plant's shape, encourages healthy growth, and enhances flowering or fruiting. However, not all plants are pruned the same way, and understanding the specific needs of each plant type is crucial in achieving a garden that is both vibrant and visually appealing.
Firstly, it's important to recognize that the goal of pruning should be to maintain or enhance the natural form of the plant. Over-pruning can lead to a loss of character and vitality in a plant. For deciduous shrubs and trees, such as hydrangeas or maples, pruning should be done in late winter or early spring when they are still dormant and before new growth begins. This timing helps prevent sap loss in certain species and reduces the risk of disease infection through fresh cuts.
When dealing with flowering ornamentals like roses or azaleas, timing your pruning is key to ensuring prolific blooming. These plants generally fall into two categories: those that bloom on new growth and those that flower on last year's wood. For instance, roses should be pruned early in spring when new shoots are just starting to appear. This encourages vigorous growth which supports robust blooms in summer. On the other hand, for spring bloomers like forsythia or lilac which flower on old wood, pruning should occur immediately after they finish blooming to avoid cutting off next year's buds.
Another critical aspect of pruning ornamental plants involves thinning out dense areas to allow light and air to penetrate deeper into the canopy. This not only improves photosynthesis but also reduces the likelihood of diseases such as mildew or leaf spot which thrive in damp conditions due to poor air circulation. The technique involves removing some central stems or branches back to their point of origin at either main branches or at ground level depending on the desired outcome.
Selective heading back can also be used particularly with herbaceous perennials like salvia or penstemon where you want denser foliage or more flowers. By cutting back these plants by one-third after initial flowering decreases leggy growths while encouraging another round of blooms later in the season.
Finally, special techniques such as espalier require precise cuts to train trees into flat two-dimensional forms against walls or fences – a practice perfect for small gardens where space is limited but height still offers potential for green walls.
In conclusion, effective pruning does not only enhance a garden's aesthetic value but promotes stronger, healthier plants capable of withstanding environmental stresses from weather elements to pests and diseases. Whether you're shaping young seedlings or managing mature specimens, always remember that each cut has a purpose towards creating a harmonious balance between nature's needs and artistic expression within your garden space.
Pruning is an essential gardening technique that enhances the health, growth, and aesthetic appearance of plants. However, like any activity involving tools and physical exertion, it comes with its own set of safety measures and precautions that must be observed to prevent accidents and injuries.
Firstly, personal protective equipment (PPE) is paramount. Gardeners should wear gloves to protect their hands from thorns, sharp branches, and the blades of pruning tools. Durable gloves can prevent cuts and blisters while providing a better grip on tools. Safety goggles or glasses are also crucial to shield the eyes from flying debris such as wood chips or sap that can cause serious eye injury. Additionally, wearing long sleeves and pants can protect the skin from scratches and exposure to harmful plants or insects.
Choosing the right tool for the job is another critical aspect of safe pruning. Tools should be appropriate for the size and type of plant being pruned. For example, hand pruners are suitable for small branches typically less than half an inch in diameter, while larger limbs might require loppers or a saw. It’s important to ensure that these tools are sharp and in good working order; dull blades can make pruning more laborious, increasing the risk of slipping or causing uneven cuts that may harm the plant's health.
Tool maintenance is equally important; clean and sharp blades make cleaner cuts which heal faster on plants. After each use, tools should be cleaned to remove sap and debris which can spread disease from one plant to another if not removed. Oiling hinges and sharpening blades regularly will keep them functioning efficiently.
When using ladders to reach higher branches, stability is key. Always ensure the ladder is on stable ground and never lean too far sideways to reach distant branches—move the ladder instead. It’s advisable not to prune alone; having someone nearby in case of an accident could be crucial.
Awareness of surroundings cannot be overstated when pruning. Be mindful of overhead power lines or nearby structures that could be damaged by falling branches or hinder safe movement around the garden.
Finally, understanding basic first aid procedures in case of an accident can significantly mitigate the severity of injuries sustained during pruning activities. Knowing how to treat minor cuts or scrapes until professional medical help can be reached may prove invaluable.
In conclusion, while pruning is a beneficial activity for both gardeners and their plants, it requires a conscientious approach towards safety precautions. By wearing appropriate protective gear, choosing suitable tools for specific tasks, maintaining those tools properly, ensuring stability when working at heights, being aware of one’s environment during work hours, and having basic first aid knowledge—gardeners can enjoy the rewards of their labor without unnecessary risk to their health or wellbeing.
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËrˈbÉ”Ër-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÎνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÏλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
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The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Lithia Springs may refer to:
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